Extrusion printing of liquid crystal elastomers

ABSTRACT

A method of ink-extrusion printing an object, including providing a mixture including liquid crystal monomers and photo-catalyzing or heating the mixture to produce a liquid crystal ink. The ink is in a nematic phase. The method includes extruding the ink through a print-head orifice moving along a print direction to form an extruded film of the object. The extruded film exhibits birefringence. Also disclosed are a liquid crystal ink. The ink includes a mixture including liquid crystal monomers. The mixture when at a target printing temperature is in a nematic phase. Also disclosed is ink-extrusion-printed object. The object includes an extrusion-printed film including a nematic liquid crystal elastomer, wherein the film exhibits birefringence along an extrusion axis of the film.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a divisional of U.S. Non-Provisional applicationSer. No. 16/104,574, filed Aug. 17, 2018, which claims the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/547,782, filed by Ware, et al.on Aug. 19, 2017, entitled “A METHOD FOR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OFLIQUID CRYSTAL ELASTOMERS,” and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.62/702,127, by Ware, et al. on Jul. 23, 2018, entitled“MOLECULARLY-ENGINEERED, 4D-PRINTED LIQUID CRYSTAL ELASTOMERS,” by Wareet al. commonly assigned with this application and incorporated hereinby reference.

GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS

This invention was made with Government Support under FA9550-17-1-0328awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The governmenthas certain rights in this invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This application is directed, in general, to liquid crystal elastomerobjects, to methods for ink-extrusion printing, to inks formanufacturing such object, and objects manufactured therefrom.

BACKGROUND

Four-dimensional (4D) printing is a term that describes additivemanufacturing of stimuli-responsive materials. This process results in3D structures capable of morphing into a distinct 3D geometry overtime^(p1-1-3). These morphing structures may enable a wide variety ofsmart devices from soft robots^(p1-4-6) to morphing medicaldevices^(p1-7-9). A variety of material strategies have arisen to enablethese morphing structures. Printed shape memory polymers can bemechanically processed after fabrication to temporarily store and thenrecover a printed shape^(p1-2,p1-10-12). However, this method mayrequire mechanical programming to achieve desired shape change. Tofabricate 3D structures capable of autonomous and reversible shapechange, several strategies have been developed that program the stimulusresponse of the material during the printing process^(p1-1,p1-3,p1-13).Important to this strategy is programming material microstructures in away that controls macroscopic deformations. For example, by controllingthe local coefficient of thermal expansion in printed structures, porousobjects with negative global coefficient of thermal expansion can befabricated. However, this deformation is limited by the small magnitudeand isotropic nature of thermal expansion. Another approach to designingmorphing structures is to locally program anisotropic stimulusresponse^(p1-3,p1-14,p1-15). Direct-write printing (often referred to asextrusion-printing herein), an intrinsic anisotropic process, can beused to create hydrogels that locally swell anisotropically. This large,programmable shape change can be utilized to create structures thatbend, twist, or curve on the macroscale. However, shape change inhydrogels is often limited by diffusion speed and the requisite aqueousenvironment^(p1-16). It would be desirable to have printable materialsthat undergo large, anisotropic, rapid, and reversible deformations toenable future 4D printed smart system.

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a class of stimuli-responsivepolymers that undergo large, reversible, anisotropic shape change inresponse to a variety of stimuli, including heat and light. Unlike manymaterials that undergo reversible shape change, these materials neitherrequire an external load nor an aqueous environment, making them idealcandidates for many applications. For LCEs to undergo reversibleshape-change in the absence of load, the LCE should be crosslinked in analigned state^(p1-17). Commonly, partially-crosslinked LCEs are fullycrosslinked under a mechanical load leading to permanent orientation ofthe liquid crystal (LC) molecules within the polymernetwork^(p1-18,p1-19). On heating, the resulting aligned LCEs contractalong the alignment direction, or nematic director, and expand in theperpendicular axes^(p1-20). With this process, it is difficult toprogram the stimulus response of the material in a spatially-variedmanner. As such, several methods have been developed to align monomericor oligomeric LCE precursors. Using patterned surface treatments firstdeveloped to pattern densely crosslinked LC polymer networks^(p1-21), LCmonomers can be patterned with high spatial resolution^(p1-22,p-23).LCEs resulting from this process can be designed to undergo bothin-plane and out-of-plane patterned shape change. However, thistechnique maybe limited to the production of relatively thin, planarfilms (less than 100 μm thick). Shear forces have been shown to inducealignment within monomeric and oligomeric LC molecules. Alignmentresults from processes such as electrospinning^(p1-24,p1-25) and fiberdrawing from the melt^(p1-26, p1-27) However, to our knowledge, shearhas not been used to spatially or hierarchically control alignmentwithin LCEs.

Mechanically-active soft materials may replace traditional actuators inapplications where low density, large shape change, and autonomousactivation provide critical benefits, including applications such assoft robots,^([p2-1][p2-2]) artificial muscles,^([p2-3])sensors,^([p2-4]) and aerospace systems.^([p2-5]) These smart materialscan be designed to transduce thermal,^([p2-4][p2-6])chemical,^([p2-1][p2-7]) magnetic,^([p2-8][p2-9]) orlight^([p2-10][p2-11][p2-12]) energy into mechanical work. As comparedto rigid active materials, such as shape memory alloys, a primaryadvantage of active soft materials is that polymer processing techniquescan be used to control the properties of the material.^([p2-13][p2-14])A number of conventional manufacturing strategies have been employed tofabricate smart, soft material such as casting, fiber spinning, andmolding.^([p2-15][p2-16][p2-17]) More recently, additive manufacturingtechniques have been applied to mechanically-active polymers.^([p2-18])The resulting printed, 3D structures are capable of undergoing change inshape over time and, as such, these manufacturing techniques are denotedas 4D printing. 4D printing has already been used to fabricate a rangeof mechanically-active smart materials, such as shape memory polymers(SMPs),^([p2-19][p2-20]) hydrogels,^([p2-21]) and fluidic elastomeractuators (FEAs).^([p2-22]) Demonstrated 4D printed structures includeSMP hinges in origami robots,^([p2-23]) morphing hydrogelstructures,^([p2-24]) and somatosensitive grippers with complex networksof FEA sensors.^([p2-22]) However, all of these materials strategieshave fundamental design limitations preventing them from achievingreversible, untethered, and low-hysteresis shape change that wouldenable 4D printed materials to operate as autonomous morphingstructures. For example, printable SMPs exhibit irreversibledeformation, limiting SMPs to applications requiring deployment.Reversible swelling in printed, anisotropic hydrogel composites can beused to create morphing structures, but these materials have relativelylow blocking stress and diffusion-limited actuation speed. FEAs canexert high stresses but require a tethered fluid pressure system toinduce large reversible deformation.

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are mechanically-active soft materialsthat undergo reversible shape change that does not require mechanicalbias, aqueous environment, or tethered power source and as such thesematerials are of interest as actuators and morphing structures. Shapechange of up to 400% is observed in response to stimuli that induce thetransition of the material from ordered to disordered, most typically achange in temperature.^([p2-25]) Finkelmann and co-workers firstreported this behavior by uniaxially aligning LCEs during crosslinkingby applying a load.^([p2-26][p2-10]) Recently, several processingmethods have arisen to enable LCEs that undergo complex shape change inresponse to a stimulus.^([p2-27]) Liquid crystal elastomers with dynamiccovalent bonds have been synthesized that can be aligned during bondrearrangement.^([p2-28]) Furthermore, chemistries amenable to surfacealignment techniques have been introduced allowing for precisepatterning of the molecular order in a voxel-by-voxel manner.^([p2-29])LCEs produced by this method morph reversibly from planar films tocomplex shapes in response to an environmental stimulus. Recently, ourgroup and others have used direct ink writing (DIW) to print 3D LCEgeometries with patterned molecular order.^([p2-30-32]) The methodutilizes the shear forces imposed on the polymerizable LC ink during theprinting process to align the mesogens along the printed path, which issubsequently locked into LCE via photo-curing. The resulting 3Dstructures can be designed to morph between 3D shapes. However, thismethod has been limited to LCEs with elevated actuation temperatures inexcess of 100° C., which limits the functionality of this new processingtechnique for LCEs.

In LCEs the actuation temperature of the final material is intrinsicallytied to the processing conditions. To orient precursors of the LCE, theprecursors must be processed in a liquid crystalline phase (i.e. nematicphase).^([p2-27]) Crosslinking converts these precursors into LCEs withprogrammed molecular orientation but also stabilizes the nematic phase,thus increasing the transition temperature between the ordered nematicand isotropic phase.^([p2-25]) Many synthetic strategies utilizecrosslinking reactions that introduce heterogeneity into the elastomernetwork, such as acrylate homopolymerization.^([p2-29][p2-33]) Thisheterogeneity therefore broadens the temperature range over which theLCE changes shape. Together, these factors often combine to creatematerials that change shape over a relatively high and broad range oftemperatures, precluding applications where these soft actuatorsinterface with the human body and other sensitive systems.

SUMMARY

One aspect of the disclosure provides a method of ink-extrusion printingan object. The mixture includes providing a mixture including liquidcrystal monomers and photo-catalyzing or heating the mixture to producea liquid crystal ink. The ink is in a nematic phase. The method alsoincludes extruding the ink through a print-head orifice moving along aprint direction to form an extruded film of the object. The extrudedfilm exhibits birefringence.

Another aspect of the disclosure provides a liquid crystal ink forink-extrusion printing. The ink includes a mixture including liquidcrystal monomers, wherein the mixture, when at a target printingtemperature is in a nematic phase.

Another aspect of the disclosure provides an ink-extrusion-printedobject. The object includes an extrusion-printed film including anematic liquid crystal elastomer. The film exhibits birefringence alongan extrusion axis of the film.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, referenceis now made to the following detailed description taken in conjunctionwith the accompanying FIGUREs, in which:

FIG. 1 presents a flow diagram of example embodiments of a method ofink-extrusion printing an object in accordance with the principles ofthe present disclosure;

FIG. 2 present a perspective view of ink-extrusion-printed objectprinted in accordance with an embodiment of the method of manufacturingdisclosed in the context of FIG. 1 and further illustrating aspects ofmeasuring the birefringence of a an extrusion-printed film of theobject;

FIG. 3A Schematic of an example printing process used to fabricate andalign LCE structures in accordance with the disclosure, FIG. 3B Thechemical structure of the LC monomer, RM82, and chain extender,n-butylamine, used to synthesize the reactive LCE ink in accordance withthe principles of the present disclosure, FIG. 3C Log-log plots ofstorage and loss modulus as a function of shear stress for the LC ink,FIG. 3D Log-log plots of the LC oligomer viscosity as a function ofshear rates at varying printing temperatures, FIG. 3E Scanning electronmicrographs of a printed LCE ‘log pile’ structure, illustrating thepresence of micro-ridges, FIG. 3F Polarized optical micrographs showingbirefringence of a uniaxially-printed LCE at 0° (dark) and 45θ (bright)to the polarizer, FIG. 3G Representative stress-strain curves of printedLCE films at three different orientations, 0° (where the print directionis perpendicular to the long axis of the film), 45θ (print direction is450 to the film), and 90θ (parallel print path to the long axis), FIG.3H Dimension of an uniaxially-aligned LCE fiber as a function oftemperature;

FIG. 4A Print path schematic of a 1-layer Archimedean chord printpattern mimicking a +1 topological defect on a circular film, FIG. 4B A3D printed 20 mm diameter disk with a programed +1 defect (inset), andSide view images of the disk at room temperature and at 160° C. insilicone oil, FIG. 4C A representative curve of normalized height as afunction of temperature, FIG. 4D Schematic of a 2-layer rectangular LCEfilm with the top and bottom layers printed at 900 to each other and±450 with respect to the long axis of the film, FIG. 4E At roomtemperature each film is flat and on heating the film morphs into eithera helix or helical ribbon, FIG. 4F Normalized twist as a function oftemperature for several aspect rations, whereas width of the samplesincrease, the amount of twists decreases, FIG. 4G Print path schematicof a porous structure comprised of rectilinear print paths alternating900 with respect to the previous layer at 25% fill density, FIG. 4H Theporous structure exhibits an in-plane contraction, FIG. 4I Pore size andvolumetric dimensions as a function of temperature;

FIG. 5A A printed LCE cylinder (zero Gaussian curvature) with anazimuthal print path. On heating the cylinder undergoes radialcontraction. Radial contraction is dependent by the thickness of thetube's walls, FIG. 5B Printed LCE hemispherical shell (positive Gaussiancurvature); on heating the hemisphere undergoes an azimuthal contractionand an axial expansion forming a “peaked” hemisphere; height increasescontinuously as a function of temperature (red point indicates height),FIG. 5C A printed LCE hemi-hyperboloid; on heating the hemisphereundergoes an azimuthal contraction and an axial expansion leading to acontinuous increase in height;

FIG. 6A A structure with comprised of opposing negative and positiveGaussian curvatures is printed with a print path. An asymmetricsnap-through transition occurs on heating during the reorientation ofthe positive Gaussian curvature, FIG. 6B The snap-through actuation fromthe combined Gaussian structure is capable of reversible snapping uponcontinual heating and cooling past T_(NI), FIG. 6C Time lapse images ofthe printed structure undergoing an asymmetric snap-through transition.The snap transition occurs over 16 ms, but releases enough energy tolift the structure airborne for ˜64 ms, FIG. 6D Stroke and specific workfor structures loaded with external loads;

FIG. 7 Log-log plots of storage and loss modulus as a function of shearstress for the LC ink; at all printing temperatures, the loss modulus isgreater than the storage modulus signifying that the LCE system displaysfluid as opposed to gel-like properties;

FIG. 8 Representative stress-strain curves of printed LCE films at threedifferent orientations, 0° (where the print direction is perpendicularto the long axis of the film), 45θ (print direction is 45θ to the film),and 90θ (parallel print path to the long axis);

FIG. 9 Side view images of a printed LCE hollow cylinder with +1 defectpattern through the thickness exhibiting both radial contraction andheight expansion;

FIG. 10 Side view images of a printed LCE hollow cylinder with thecombined Gaussian curvature LCE and imposed with a high load, s u c h th at the combined Gaussian curvature LCE no longer exhibits a fullsnap-through actuation but retains the ability to lift the load acertain distance, but not generate enough energy to produce asnap-through actuation;

FIGS. 11A-11C Example processing schematic of LC materials structures inaccordance with the disclosure: FIG. 11A Chemical structure of exampleLC, thiol, and crosslinker monomers used to generate different liquidcrystal elastomer compositions with varying mechanical andthermomechanical properties, FIG. 11B Printing schematic of three LCinks printing 3D filaments, FIG. 11C Optical images of 3D printedfilaments showing nematic (opaque) to isotropic (transparent) transitionof the three networks as a function of heating, Scale Bar: 2 mm;

FIGS. 12A-12C Example effect of the crosslinking strategy structures inaccordance with the disclosure: Direct comparison of thethermomechanical properties of the inks and the networks using twodifferent crosslinking mechanisms (acrylate homopolymerization vs.thiol-ene “click” polymerization), Thiol-acrylate reaction is used tocreate the oligomer inks (RM 82 as mesogen and EDDT as spacer), FIG. 12ADifferential scanning calorimetry (DSC) traces of the inks beforecrosslinking, FIG. 12B Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) traces of thenetworks (polydomain), FIG. 12C Actuation strain of the networks underconstant stress of 100 kPa;

FIGS. 13A-13D Example influence of thiol spacer on thermomechanicalproperties: FIG. 13A DSC traces of the oligomer inks. FIG. 13B Log-logplots of each oligomer inks' viscosity as a function of shear rate atroom temperature for EDDT and GDMP and 65° C. for PDT. FIG. 13C DMAtraces of the networks resulting from each ink (polydomain). FIG. 13DActuation strain of 3D printed, uniaxially oriented samples withoutapplied stress (˜0 kPa);

FIGS. 14A-14D Example influence of molecular weight of the mesogen onthermomechanical properties: Compositions have varying weight ratios oftwo mesogens (RM82/RM257) while keeping the same spacer (GDMP) andcrosslinker (TATATO), Five inks are formulated with 100/0, 75/25, 50/50,25/75, or 0/100 wt % of RM82/RM257, FIG. 14A DSC traces of the inks,FIG. 14B DMA traces of the networks resulting from crosslinking of theinks (polydomain), FIG. 14C Actuation strain of 3D printed, molecularlyoriented samples without applied stress of formulations 100/0, 75/25,and 50/50, FIG. 14D Side-view images of a 3D-printed, 20 mm diameterdisk printed with a +1 topological defect pattern at room temperatureand actuated in hot tap water (45° C.), Scale bar: 5 mm;

FIGS. 15A-15F Example sequential actuation of multi-material prints:FIG. 15A Printing schematic of a 20 mm disk printed with two materialsin a +1 defect print pattern, FIG. 15B Sequential actuation of the diskinto a plateaued-cone due to actuation of the GDMP 75/25 component.Further heating yields a full cone after PDT component actuates, FIG.15C Height profile of the disk's actuation, FIG. 15D Printing schematicof a logpile structure with the horizontal axis printed with GDMP 75/25composition and vertical axis printed with PDT composition, FIG. 15EThermal actuation of the structure shows a contraction along withhorizontal axis first followed by contraction along the vertical axis athigher temperatures. Outline of the original logpile structure isincluded to visualize the contraction of each axis, FIG. 15F Actuationstrain as function of temperature for each axis (lines are used to guidethe eye), Scale bars: 5 mm;

FIGS. 16A-16D Example temperature sensitive gripper: FIG. 16ATemperature sensitive gripper 3D printed with GDMP (75/25) and PDTcompositions, FIG. 16B Printing schematic of the gripper. Layers 1 & 2(L₁&L₂) are printed with GDMP 75/25-based compositions, and layers 3 & 4(L₃ & L₄) are printed with PDT-based compositions, FIG. 16C At 70° C.,the gripper will grasp the object and is capable of lifting the object;at this temperature the low-temperature responsive component fullyactuates while the high-temperature responsive component staysrelatively unactuated resulting in the grasp, FIG. 16D The same gripperis then introduced to a higher temperature environment (140° C.) causingthe high-temperature responsive component to actuate overcoming thelow-temperature response and inhibits grasping of the object, Scalebars: 10 mm;

FIGS. 17A-17D Example effect of the crosslinker concentration onthermomechanical properties: varying the amount of the crosslinker(TATATO) from 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, or 0.6 molar ratio; the networks formed bycrosslinking (TATATO) with thiol-terminated oligomer using thiol-enephotopolymerization; FIG. 17A DSC traces of the oligomer and thecrosslinker monomer before crosslinking; FIG. 17B Gel fractionmeasurement of the crosslinked LCEs; FIG. 17C DMA traces of theelastomeric networks (polydomain); FIG. 17D Actuation strainmeasurements of polydomain samples under applied stress of 100 kPa;

FIG. 18 Example ¹³C NMR spectrum of RM82-PDT oligomer for thecalculation of the molecular weight using end group analysis;

FIG. 19 Example rheology measurements of GDMP-based inks: Compositionsare formed by varying weight ratios of two mesogens (RM82/RM257) whilekeeping the same spacer (GDMP) and crosslinker (TATATO). Log-log plotsof each oligomer inks' viscosity as a function of shear rate at roomtemperature;

FIG. 20 Example shear forces to induce alignment of LC links: polarizedoptical micrographs showing birefringence of a uniaxially printed LCE at0° (dark) and 45° (bright) to the polarizer; and

FIGS. 21A-21B Example influence of the shear force on the ink's LCbehavior and the effect of intensity of UV curing on the actuationstrain for 50-50 GDMP-based LCEs: FIG. 21A the shear forces applied intoGDMP (50-50) transiently increases its T_(N1), polarized opticalmicrographs show an isotropic ink of this composition becomes nematicupon applying a shear force at room temperature, FIG. 21B Actuationstrain measurements of uniaxially printed 50-50 GDMP-based LCEs underapplied stress of 0 kPa: the upper plot for a sample crosslinked at UVintensity of 2.2 mW/cm² and the lower plot for a sample crosslinked at0.75 mW/cm².

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As part of the present disclosure we have found that extrusion printingfacilitates the manufacture of LCE objects with locally-controlledmolecular order within 3D-printed geometries. Shear forces intrinsic tothe extrusion printing process can be used to orient LC reactive inks,as disclosed herein, along a print path, and these inks can subsequentlybe polymerized into stimulus-responsive elastomers. Molecularorientation and geometric architecture can be controlled to designspecific shape changes on exposure to various external stimuli such thatprinted objects that can stretch, twist, and contract can be designedand fabricated as disclosed herein. The printing methods, inks andobjects manufactured therefore may be used to manufacture smart devicesranging from low density machines to implantable medical devices.

One embodiment of the disclosure is a method of ink-extrusion printingan object. FIG. 1 presents a flow diagram of example embodiments of amethod 100 of ink-extrusion printing an object in accordance with theprinciples of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 present a perspective viewof an ink-extrusion-printed object 200, printed in accordance with anyof the embodiments of the method disclosed herein, including anyembodiments of the method 100 disclosed in the context of FIG. 1 .

With continuing reference to FIGS. 1 and 2 throughout, the method 100includes providing a mixture 205 including liquid crystal monomers (step105). The method 100 also includes photo-catalyzing or heating themixture 205 to produce a liquid crystal ink 210 (step 110). The ink 210is in a nematic phase.

In some embodiments, the ink 210 has a shear loss modulus (G″) to shearstorage modulus (G′) ratio of greater than about 100:1. For example,some embodiments of the mixture 205 consisting essentially of (e.g., 99wt % or higher, or 99.1 wt % or higher) the liquid crystal monomers andoptional chain extending monomers, photo-initiators, crosslinkingcatalysts, and/or crosslinking agents, described below, can have such aG″: G′ ratio. For example, some embodiments of the mixture substantiallyfree of viscosity modifiers (less than 1 wt % or less than 0.1 wt %),can have such a G″: G′ ratio.

The method 100 further includes extruding the ink 210 through aprint-head orifice 215 moving along a print direction 220 to form anextruded film 225 of the object 200 (step 115). The extruded film 225exhibits birefringence. For example in some embodiments, the extrudedfilm 225 exhibits birefringence along the print direction 220 such thatthe film 225 is brighter when illuminated with a polarized light 227when the print direction 220 is about ±45 degrees relative to a sourcedirection 230 of the polarized light 227 as compared to when the film225 is illuminated with the polarized light 227 with the sourcedirection 230 substantially parallel to the print direction 220.

The term ink-extrusion printing as used herein means extruding areservoir 235 of ink through an orifice of a print head 222 by applyingpressure to the ink 210 in the reservoir 235 such that shear forces areapplied to the extruded ink as it passes through the orifice such thatthe nematic phase of the liquid crystal are substantially aligned in theprint direction as evidenced by exhibiting the birefringence. Thebirefringence along the print direction denotes the substantialorientation of liquid crystal monomers in the print direction, alsoreferred to herein as a nematic director, due to the shear forcesexperienced by the monomers (or oligomers of these monomers) from theextrusion printing process.

The term brighter as used herein means that for a thin sample (e.g., 1mm thickness 240) a visible light transmission intensity from theextruded film 225 when the source direction 230 (e.g., the propagationdirection) of the polarized light 227 is at about +45 or −45 degrees(e.g., +45±5 degrees or −45±5 degrees), relative to the print direction220, is at least two times greater (and in some embodiments, at least 10or 100 times greater) than a visible light transmission intensity fromthe film 225 when the source direction 230 of the polarized light 227 issubstantially parallel to the print direction 220 (e.g., 0±5 degrees).

FIG. 2 further illustrates aspects of an example measurement thebirefringence of an extrusion-printed film 225. The film 225 can bepositioned such that, two polarizing filters 250, 252 (e.g., crossedpolarizer, P, and analyzer, A, respectively), are located above andbelow the film 225, respectively. The polarized light 227 (e.g.,generated from a non-polarized white visible light source 255), producedafter passing through the first polarizing filter 250, then through thefilm 225, and then through the second polarizing filter 252 to a lightmeter 257 to quantify the birefringent light transmission intensity. Oneor both of the two polarizing filters 250, 252 can be rotated such thepolarized light 227 is ±45 and then 0 degrees, relative to the printdirection 220. Alternatively, the film 225 can be rotated (e.g., byrotating a sample stage, not shown for clarity), such the polarizedlight 227 is ±45 and then 0 degrees, relative to the print direction220.

One skilled in the pertinent art would appreciate how such measurementscould be implemented using commercially available polarized lightmicroscope systems. One skilled in the pertinent art would appreciatehow such measurement principles could be adapted to measure thereflected light intensity relative to the print direction instead oftransmission intensity.

In some embodiments, providing the mixture 205 (step 105) can includeadding one or more different types (e.g., different chemical formula) ofliquid crystal monomers and other optional components such as chainextending monomers, photo-initiators, crosslinking catalysts, and/orcrosslinking agents together in a container 260 (e.g., a glass vial),while stirring the mixture (e.g., vortexed) until a homogeneous, LCmonomer solution is formed. The homogeneous solution can then betransferred from the container 260 to the receptacle 235 (e.g., a printtube) for subsequent formation of the ink 210 in accordance with step210. Alternatively or additionally, in some embodiments, as part of step110, the mixture of such components in the container 260 can be heatedas part of forming the ink 210 and then the ink 210 or partially formedink 210 can be transferred to the receptacle 235, to complete formingthe ink (e.g., via additional light illumination or heating) inaccordance with step 110.

In some embodiments heating (step 110) includes or is heating to atemperature in a range from 40 to 140° C. for 6 to 18 hrs (or 60 to 90°C. for about 10 to 14 hrs, or 75° C. for about 12 hrs in someembodiments). In some embodiments, photo-catalyzing (step 110) includesor is illumination e.g., with UV or VIS light (e.g., with intensity ofabout 1 mW/cm²) at room temperature for 6 to 18 hrs (intensity X time Y)in the presence of a photo-initiator. In some embodiments, step 110 mayinclude a combination, or sequence, of such heating andphoto-catalyzing.

The liquid crystal ink 210 produced in step 110 has the appropriateviscosity to allow extrusion printing, to facilitate the desiredshearing (e.g., G″/G′>100) due to extrusion-printing such that the ink210 has birefringence associated with nematic phase alignment, and, tohold such birefringence (and nematic phase alignment) after printing andduring and following the curing of the film 225, as further discussedbelow. For instance, in some embodiments, the ink 210, at theextrusion-printing temperature, has a viscosity in a range from 5 to 10Pa·s at 50 s⁻¹ (e.g., about 8 Pa·s at 50 s⁻¹ in some embodiments). Forinstance, in some embodiments, extruding the ink through the orifice 215exposes the ink to a shear rate in a range from 1 to 100 s⁻¹. Forinstance, in some embodiments, extruding the ink through the orifice 215exposes the ink to a shear rate in a range from 40 to 60 s⁻¹ (e.g.,about 50 s⁻¹ in some embodiments).

To facilitate providing such inks 210, in some embodiments,photo-catalyzing or heating the mixture to produce the ink 210 (step110) includes forming liquid crystal oligomers of the liquid crystalmonomers, the oligomers in the nematic phase (e.g., having thebirefringence) and having a molecular weight in a range from about 2 to25 kD.

To facilitate providing the desired films 225, it is important to ensurethat the extrusion of the ink 210 occurs while the ink 210 is in anematic phase, and thereby has the above-described birefringence,extruding the ink (step 115) through the print-head orifice 215 iscarried out at a temperature below the nematic to isotropic transitiontemperature (T_(NI)) of the ink 210. For instance, in some embodiments,the extruding may be carried out a temperature of least 2, 5 or 20° C.less than the T_(NI) of the ink 210.

In some embodiments, the extruded film 225 can be left to cure, thecuring including further polymerization of the oligomers or forming ofcrosslinks between polymer chains of the liquid crystal oligomers, orsimply cooling, to solidify over time (e.g., hours or days) at roomtemperature, or higher sub-melting point temperatures, without furtherexternal stimulus to accelerate crosslinking, polymerization orsolidification.

For example, the rheology of the extruded film (e.g., exhibits a yieldstress) can be such that the film spontaneously cures to form a solid atroom temperature (20° C.).

In other embodiments, the method 100 can further include applying anexternal stimulus to accelerate crosslinking of the extruded film toform a cured film 225 (step 120).

Embodiments of the cured film exhibit the above-described birefringence(step 120). For instance, the cured film can have substantially the samebrighter birefringence light transmission intensity when illuminatedwith the polarized light in the source direction when the printdirection is about ±450 versus substantially parallel visible lighttransmission intensity (e.g., the brighter transmission intensity iswithin ±10%, and within ±1% for some embodiments), as the extruded filmbefore the crosslinking.

In some embodiments, the external stimulus applied in step 120 caninclude non-photo-catalyzed crosslinking, e.g., vitrification orcrystallization, to accelerate solidification of the extruded film.

In some embodiments, applying the external stimulus (step 120) caninclude a first sub-step (step 122) of applying a first externalstimulus to cause an initial crosslinking of the liquid crystal ink inproximity to the print head 222 as it is moving, and, a second sub-step(step 125) of applying a second external stimulus to post-cure theobject after the ink-extrusion printing of the object is complete. Insome embodiments, applying the external stimulus of the first sub-step122 can include applying UV light source (e.g., light sources 285) inproximity to a print-head 290 (e.g. a directed UV LED source attached tothe print-head). In some embodiments, applying the external stimulus ofthe second sub-step 125 can include applying a UV light source capableof illuminating the object as a whole (e.g. a UV lamp).

In some embodiments the cured film 225 can be or include a liquidcrystal polymer network including cross-linked copolymers of liquidcrystal diacrylate monomers, and can be liquid crystal elastomers. Insome embodiments, the cured film 225 can be or include a liquid crystalpolymer network having a MW of at least 20 kD, 100 KD, 1000, 10000 KDsuch that the cured film is a solid at room temperature, 30° C., 40° C.or 50° C.

Another embodiment of the disclosure is a liquid crystal ink (e.g., ink210, FIG. 2 ) for ink-extrusion printing (e.g., step 115 FIG. 1 ).Embodiments of the ink include a mixture including liquid crystalmonomers. The mixture when at a target printing temperature is in anematic phase.

In some embodiments the mixture 205, when at the target printingtemperature, the mixture has a shear loss modulus (G″) to shear storagemodulus (G′) ratio of greater than about 100:1 (or at least about 150:1,200:1, or 300:1, in various embodiments). In some embodiments, asdiscussed above, the mixture 205 having such a G″: G′ ratio, consistsessentially of the liquid crystal monomers and optional chain extendingmonomers, photo-initiators, crosslinking catalysts, and/or crosslinkingagents. Additionally or alternatively, in some embodiments, the mixture205 having such a G″:G′ ratio, is substantially free of viscositymodifiers, can have such a G″: G′ ratio.

In some embodiments, to facilitate extrusion-printing, the ink, in adesired temperature range, the ink has a nematic to isotropic transitiontemperature (T_(NI)) in a range from about 0 to 150° C. (or from about 0to 20, 20 to 40, 40 to 60, 60 to 80, 80 to 100 or 100 to 120° C. invarious embodiments). As further illustrated in the Experimental Resultssections herein, to provide the desired T_(NI), the ink can include orbe one or more types of 1,4 (acryloyloxalkyloxy)benzoyloxy 2-methylbenzene liquid crystal molecules.

In some embodiments, at least some of the liquid crystal monomers arepart of liquid crystal oligomers of the ink, the liquid crystaloligomers having an average molecular weight (MW) in a range from about2 kD to 25 kD. As an example, when the liquid crystal monomers are RM257molecules(1,4-Bis-[4-(3-acryloyloxypropyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene, CAS174063-87-7; MW 588 g/mol) then 3 to 30 of RM257 LC monomers polymerizedin a sequential polyacrylamide chain of the liquid crystal oligomerswould have MWs of about 1.8 kD to 18 kD. Or, for example, when theliquid crystal monomers are RM82 molecules1,4-Bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxyhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene, CAS125248-71-7, MW 673 g/mol) then 3 to 30 of RM82 LC monomers (MW=673g/mol) polymerized in a sequential polyacrylamide chain of the liquidcrystal oligomers would have MWs of about 2.0 to 20 kD.

Higher molecular weight oligomers would be present in the ink when thechain extending monomers are also incorporated into the polymerizedchain of the liquid crystal monomer. Continuing with the same examples,when the chain extending monomer 1,9-nonanedithiol is included inbetween some or all of the 3 to 30 RM257 LC monomers and terminates thepolymerized chain then the polymerized chain of the liquid crystaloligomer could have MWs of up to about 2.7 kD to 24 kD. When the chainextending monomer 1,9-nonanedithiol is included in between some or allof the 3 to 30 RM82 LC monomers and terminates the polymerized chainthen the polymerized chain of the liquid crystal oligomer could have MWsof up to about 3 kD to 26 kD.

Still higher molecular weight oligomers (e.g., 2 or 3 times higher MW)could be present in the ink when one or more crosslinking agents bridgetwo or more of the polymerized chains of two liquid crystal oligomerstogether.

Some embodiments of the ink include liquid crystal monomers having oneor more di-acrylate end-functionalized liquid crystal monomers (alsoreferred to herein as known as mesogenic monomers or mesogens). Somesuch di-acrylate end-functionalized liquid crystal monomers can becomposed of 1, 4 benzoyloxy-benzene mesogenic cores terminated bydi-acrylate end-functionalized acryloyloxyalkyloxy spacer arms ofvarying lengths.

For example, some embodiments of the liquid crystal monomers include oneor more 1,4-bis-[acryloyloxyalkyloxy] benzoyloxy 2, 3, 5, or 6substituted or unsubstituted benzene molecules having the formula:

where n₁ and n₂ are integers in a range from 3 to 6, and X is —H, —CH₃or —F.

As further illustrated in the Experimental Results sections, 2-methylbenzene substituted molecules (X=—CH₃) can facilitate controlling thenematic phase behavior of ink so as to offer a broad range oftemperature and viscosities where the molecule in the ink can be in anematic phase which in turn facilitates ink-extrusion printing under avariety of different conditions.

In some such embodiments, the liquid crystal monomers includes molecules(e.g., first molecules) where n₁=n₂ and the X is —CH₃. For example theliquid crystal monomer can have the formula of:

wherein n equals an integer from 3 and 6.

In some such embodiments, the liquid crystal monomers can furtherincludes a second molecule where X is —CH₃ and n₁=n₂ but the n₁ and n₂of the second molecule is not equal to the n₁ and n₂ of the firstmolecule. For example the second molecules of the liquid crystal monomerhas the formula of:

wherein m is also an integer from 3 to 6 but m is not equal to n.

For example, in some such embodiments, for the first molecules, n₁=n₂=6and X=—CH₃ to provide RM82 molecules, for the second molecules, n₁=n₂=6and X=—CH₃ to provide RM257 molecules and the molar ratio of the firstmolecule:second molecule (e.g., RM82:RM257) is in a range from about25:75 to 75:25.

In some embodiments, to lower the transition temperature (T_(NI)), theink can include chain extending monomers (e.g., as provided in themixture 205, FIG. 2 ). Embodiments of the chain extending monomers caninclude a covalently linked series of three to ten carbon, sulphur,oxygen or nitrogen atoms and two end functional groups capable ofreacting with the liquid crystal monomer, e.g., such that the chainextending monomers are incorporated into a backbone of a polymerizedchain of the chain extending monomers during the heating orphoto-catalyzing step 110. Non-limiting examples include one or more ofn-butylamine, 2,2′-(Ethylenedioxy)diethanethiol (EDDT), nonanedithiol(NDT), ethanedithiol (EDT), and hexanedithiol. The primary amine ofn-butylamine reacts twice and so provides the equivalent two reactiveend functional groups.

In some embodiments, to increase the MW of liquid crystal oligomers andadjust the rheology of the film, the ink can include a crosslinkingagent capable of bridging oligomers together, e.g., by covalentlybonding one polymerized chain of the liquid crystal monomers to anotherpolymerized chain of the liquid crystal monomer via the crosslinkingagent. As non-limiting example crosslinking agent is non-limitingexample crosslinking agent includes 1,3,5-triallyl-1,2,5-triazine-2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)-trione (TATATO) or similar tri-vinyl functionalizedcrosslinking agents familiar to those skilled in the pertinent art.

Still another embodiment of the disclosure is an ink-extrusion-printedobject (e.g., object 200, FIG. 2 ). The object can be formed by any ofthe method embodiments, and using any of the ink embodiments discussedin the context of FIGS. 1 and 2 .

Embodiments of the object 200 include an extrusion-printed film (e.g.,film 225) that include or is a nematic liquid crystal elastomer. Thefilm exhibits birefringence along an extrusion axis of the film (e.g.,the axis parallel to print direction 220 also referred to as director)such that the film is brighter when illuminated with a polarized lightwhen the extrusion axis is about ±450 relative to a source direction 230of the polarized light 227 as compared to when the film is illuminatedwith the polarized light with the source direction substantiallyparallel to the extrusion axis.

The term nematic liquid crystal elastomer, as used herein means that thepolymer is a viscoelastic polymer, having the above describedbirefringence and having both viscous and elastic properties familiar tothose skilled in the pertinent art. For example, the nematic liquidcrystal elastomers of the object have a glass transition temperature, asmeasured using differential scanning calorimetry by the midpoint of thechange in heat capacity, less than about 30° C., and Young's modulus ofless than about 200 MPa.

The term film, as used herein refers to filaments, layers or othercontinuous raised feature shapes that not are necessarily larger in twodimensions than in a third dimension.

In some embodiments, the film 225 has an elastic modulus in a directionparallel to the extrusion axis that is at least 4 times greater than anelastic modulus of the film in a direction perpendicular to theextrusion axis. The some embodiments, the elastic modulus in a directionparallel to the extrusion axis is a value in a range from 10^(x) to10^(y) Pa where x equal Sand y equals 9.

As further illustrated in FIG. 2 , and the Experimental Results sectionto follow, in some embodiments, and outer surface (e.g., top surface261) the film 225 includes ridges (e.g., micro-ridges 262). Each themicro-ridges 262 can have a long axis (e.g., axis 264) substantiallyparallel to the extrusion axis. In some embodiments, the ridges 262 eachcan be separated by an average distance 266 (e.g., peak-to-peakdistance) in a micron range. In some embodiments, the ridges 262 canhave an average depth 268 (e.g., peak-to-valley depth in a range from 1to 1000 microns. In some embodiments, the ridges can be rectangularshaped while in other embodiments the ridges can be rounded.

While not limiting the scope of the invention by theoreticalconsiderations, it is believed that the micro-ridges result from theextrusion-printing process of the inks disclosed herein and that themicro-ridges have an effect on the mechanical behavior of the film(e.g., the anisotropy in the elastic modulus parallel versusperpendicular to the extrusion axis).

Embodiments of the object can include extrusion-printed films printed(e.g., as a continuous film) in any of three dimensions. For example, asillustrated in FIG. 2 , some embodiments of object 200 include a filmwhere the film 227 include at least one bend (or turn) 270 where adirection 272 of the extrusion axis in a first segment 274 of the film225 before the bend and a direction 276 of the extrusion axis in asecond segment 278 of the film are non-parallel. That is the extrusionaxis of the first segment 274 and the extrusion axis of the secondsegment 278 form an angle 280 of at least about 1 degree (e.g., at leastabout 5 degrees, or acute normal or obtuse angles in variousembodiments).

In such embodiments, the above-described birefringence, differenceselastic modulus properties in parallel and perpendicularextrusion-directions, the micro-ridges, and anisotropic response are allwith respect to a local direction of the extrusion axis, e.g., 1, 10,100 millimeter or greater lengths of sub-segments of the film 225 thatare extrusion-printed in substantially a same parallel direction (e.g.,an angle 280 of less than 1 degree).

In some embodiments, the film changes anisotropically to an isotropicexternal stimulus. For instance, the film can exhibit an anisotopicresponse to an isotropic external stimulus, where the isotropic externalstimulus being one or more of visible light, a change in temperature orexposure an aqueous liquid.

For example, in some embodiments, the film changes by reversiblycontracting parallel to the extrusion axis when the external stimulus isan increase in temperature and by reversibly expanding parallel to theextrusion axis when the external stimulus is a decrease in temperature.For example, in some embodiments, the film change with the anisotropicresponse includes reversible contraction parallel to the extrusion axisand reversible expansion perpendicular to the extrusion axis when theexternal stimulus is an increase in temperature. That is, the reverseanisotropic response occurs when the external stimulus is a decrease intemperature: expansion parallel to the extrusion axis and contractionperpendicular to the extrusion axis. As a non-limiting example, for someembodiments the film can contract by 40 percent in length along theextrusion axis upon heating from room temperature to 200° C.

For example, in some embodiment, the film change with the anisotropicresponse includes reversible expansion parallel to the extrusion axisand reversible contraction perpendicular to the extrusion axis when theexternal stimulus is an exposure to an aqueous solution. In someembodiments the aqueous solution can include or be an inorganic acid.While not limiting the scope of the invention by theoreticalconsiderations, it is believed that the expansion parallel to theextrusion axis occurred because exposure to the aqueous solution causesa downward shift in the transition temperature T_(NI) of the nematicliquid crystal elastomer of the film. As a non-limiting example, forsome embodiments the film can contract by 20 percent in length along theextrusion axis upon exposure to water for 24 hrs.

For example, in some embodiment, the film change with the anisotropicresponse includes reversible contraction parallel to the extrusion axisand reversible expansion perpendicular to the extrusion axis when theexternal stimulus is exposure to visible light. As a non-limitingexample, for some embodiments the film can contract by 50 percent inlength along the extrusion axis upon exposure continuous or pulsed lightbeams from incandescent or laser light sources having an intensity in arange of from 0.050 to 2 W/cm².

In some embodiments, to refine the extent of such anisotropic responses,a combination of these isotropic external stimuli can be applied to thefilm. Or, the external stimuli can be applied so as to stimulate only aportion of the object or to differently stimulate different portions ofthe film.

As further demonstrated in the Experimental Results sections to follow,in some embodiment, to refine the extent of the anisotropic responses,the object can include two or more different extrusion-printed films,where each film is made of different compositions of nematic liquidcrystal elastomer, e.g., having different anisotropic responses for agiven same external stimulus. For example the second film can becomposed of a second nematic liquid crystal elastomer having a differenttransition temperature T_(NI) (e.g., an about 5, 10, 20, or 30° C.difference) than the transition temperature T_(NI) of the first film. Insome such embodiments, the second film can be extrusion printed adjacentand parallel to the film, or, on top of the film, along a secondextrusion axis that is substantially parallel to the extrusion axis ofthe film. That is the first and second films are coincident directors.In other embodiments, the second film can be extrusion printed such thatthe extrusion of the second film axis is non-parallel directions to theextrusion axis of the first film (e.g., the extrusion axis of the firstand second films form a divergence angle of at least 1 degree).

As further demonstrated in the Experimental Result sections to follow,the object can include one or more films extrusion-printed in a varietyof complex patterns to form, e.g., an Archimedean chord pattern, a stackof porous planar layers, a hollow cylinder including one or more neutralpositive or negative Gaussian curved surfaces or other three-dimensionalprinted objects. For instance, embodiments of the object can includefilms extrusion-printed in multiple directions and/or include one ormore films composed of different types of nematic liquid crystalelastomers having different T_(NI) temperatures, and/or include multipleadjacent or stacked layers of such films, each film exhibitingbirefringence and/or having ridges along the respective extrusion axisof the films. Such objects can be 3D printed to have complex programmedshape formations and/or exhibit reversible shape memory features inresponse to isotropic external stimulus, as further illustrated below.

Experimental Results 1

Presented are examples, in accordance with the method 100, toextrusion-print liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) into 3D structures(object s) that undergo reversible changes in shape as a function oftemperature. Stimulus responses of the extrusion-print structures can beprogrammed by locally controlling the molecular order in the 3D object.Molecular orientation can be controlled by shear forces associated withdirect-write printing of reactive liquid crystal oligomers. Theoligomers aligned along the print direction are subsequently trapped bycross-linking the oligomer into an elastomer. As further discussedbelow, in some embodiments, each element of the LCE undergoes a 40%contraction along the print direction. Structures with a varied printpath within or between layers can facilitate controlled shape change.Some embodiments of porous LCE structures can be designed to undergo areversible 36% volume reduction on heating. Extrusion printing alsofacilitates the fabrication of embodiments of 3D morphable objects withGaussian curvatures. Such curve-containing structures can be designed toundergo rapid, reversible snap-through transitions in a matter of 16 ms.Compared to other 4D printing technologies, direct-write printing ofLCEs as disclosed herein facilitates the fabrications functionalpolymeric components capable of large, reversible deformations andoperation in a wide variety of environments.

While not limiting the scope of the invention by theoreticalconsiderations, we propose that shear force imposed on LCE precursors bydirect-write printing can be used to simultaneously deposit and alignLCE filaments, where molecular alignment lies along the print path (FIG.3 a ). The LC oligomer ink aligns as it is extruded through the printhead nozzle. Alignment of molecular orientation is locked through UVphotopolymerization, while or following the object's printing.

By controlling the print path, 3D structures with locally-controlled andreversible stimulus response can be fabricated to enable aligned LCEobject geometries not achievable with current processing methods, to ourknowledge. Examples presented herein demonstrate how the control ofgeometry and stimulus response can be used to yield structures that canundergo negative coefficient of thermal expansion or rapid, reversiblesnap-through deformations.

Examples of ink for ink-extrusion printing presented herein that canexhibit moderate viscosity in the nematic phase and can be rapidlypolymerized into a lightly cross-linked elastomer. We synthesized suchinks from commercially-available precursors by modifying previouslydescribed chemistry to polymerize LCEs^(p1-28). For example, wesynthesized a nematic diacrylate macromer by Michael addition of a 1.1:1molar ratio of the nematic liquid crystal monomer,1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene (RM82), andchain extender, n-butylamine, mixed with 1.5 wt % of photoinitiatorI-369 (FIG. 3 b ). This mixture of small molecules was loaded into theprint head where it underwent oligomerization over 12 h at 75° C.,resulting in an acrylate-terminated LC ink that exhibits a nematic toisotropic transition temperature (T_(NI)) of 110° C. Some embodiments ofthe ink can be a mixture of nematic macromers of varying lengths and asmall amount of photoinitiator. These nematic macromers (or oligomers)can be produced by a slow chain extension which takes place when then-butylamine undergoes two Michael addition reactions, forming N—C bondswith two RM-82 units and converting the primary amine to a tertiaryamine. The rheological behavior of these LC oligomer inks areadvantageous for extrusion printing. The ink behaves as a viscous liquidduring the extrusion process, as indicated in some embodiments by ˜2orders of magnitude lower shear storage modulus (G′) than shear lossmodulus (G″) (FIG. 3 c ). At all printing temperatures, the loss modulusis greater than the storage modulus signifying that the LC oligomerdisplayed fluid as opposed to gel-like properties. Within the nematicphase (65° C. and 85° C.), the LC oligomer is shear-thinning at shearrates corresponding with 3D^(p1-14), ˜50 s⁻¹ (FIG. 3 d ), indicating themelt undergoes orientation characteristic of LC linear polymers^(p1-29).Above T_(NI) (T=115° C.), the ink exhibits Newtonian behavior atmoderate shear rates, as seen in typical isotropic polymermelts^(p1-30). As it is desirable that the extrusion of the oligomer inkoccur in the nematic phase and at sufficiently low viscosities, ˜8 Pa·sat 50 s⁻¹, similar to honey or molasses, we identified 85° C. as anacceptable printing temperature for this particular ink. Afterextrusion, maintaining the geometric integrity of the extrusion printedLCE film is important. As part of the method 100 we believe that threefactors combine to stabilize the printed structure: the shear thinningbehavior drives an increase in viscosity at low shear rates, coolingfrom the print temperature to room temperature leads to an increase inviscosity, and, photopolymerization of the LC filament cross-links thematerial. As a result, the modulus of the printed object becomes stiffenough to enable print paths that span gaps within the structure (FIG. 3e ). Thus, the print-extruded LCE objects c a n retains structuralintegrity in the absence of direct supporting materials.

Molecular orientation within additively manufactured LCEs can beprogrammed in a controllable manner leading to anisotropic opticalproperties, elastic modulus, and stimulus response. Birefringenceassociated with uniaxially-oriented nematic LCEs is evident whensingle-layer LCEs extrusion printed using the aforementioned techniqueare observed between cross polarizers. The printed LCE films are darkwhen the direction of print extrusion (i.e., the direction of molecularorientation) is parallel to the polarizer or analyzer, and the films arebright when the print extrusion direction is 450 to the polarizer (FIG.3 f ). This confirms that extrusion from the print head aligns the LCmolecules in a uniaxial direction parallel to the computer-generatedprint path and that orientation is retained by crosslinking. Anisotropicand nonlinear mechanical properties associated with LCE films^(p1-23)are also present in 3D printed LCEs (FIG. 3 g ). These materials have anelastic modulus of 18 MPa along the extrusion direction and modulus of 4MPa normal to the extrusion direction. The mechanical anisotropy of asingle printed layer is similar to the anisotropy observed in uniaxiallyaligned films^(p1-31,p-132). We believe that some of the differences inmechanical behavior may be attributed to non-uniform microstructure(e.g., micro-ridges FIG. 2 , FIG. 3 f ) resulting from extrusionprinting. Some embodiments, of the extrusion printed LCE film arecapable of shape change in response to temperature. For example, areversible 40% contraction along the director was observed on heatingfrom room temperature to 200° C. (FIG. 3 h ). This uniaxial actuatordemonstrates that the direction of contraction can be controlled throughextrusion printing.

Printing LCEs with non-uniaxial print paths within the plane or throughthe thickness can produce objects that undergo complex deformations onheating. For example, directing the printer to extrude the LC ink in anArchimedean chord pattern results in an LCE film programmed with a +1topological defect (FIG. 4 a-b ). As first predicted by Modes etal^(p1-33) and later realized experimentally in surface aligned LCpolymer networks^(p1-21), the printed LCE morphs from flat (thicknessesof ˜80 μm) into a cone on heating, (FIG. 4 b ) with the height of thecone reaching up to 10 times the original film thickness (FIG. 4 c ).Out-of-plane deformation can also be programmed by varying the molecularorientation through the thickness of printed LCEs. By printingstructures 2 layers thick, active bilayers can be fabricated (FIG. 4 d). In rectangular structures with a 90θ difference in the orientationbetween the top and bottom layer, heating causes incompatible strainsand results in out-of-plane deformation. If the print directions areoffset by 450 to the long axis, twisting is observed upon heating (FIG.4 e ). The nature and degree of twist is dependent upon the aspect ratioof the printed material, as previously described^(p1-34). Films withwidths above 4 mm transform from flat to helical ribbons. As widthdecreases, the film's geometry transitions to form a more tightly woundhelix. Films with 2 mm widths exhibit on average 45°/mm of twist, while5 mm width exhibit 30°/mm (FIG. 4 f ). This behavior qualitativelymimics results seen in twisted nematic LCEs. Along with films, additivemanufacturing enables 3D structures that cannot be fabricated with usingalignment cells or mechanical loading.

Highly porous, thick LCEs with locally controlled molecular orientationcan be fabricated by direct-write printing. For example, a 10 mm×10 mm×5mm, porous object with 16 printed layers was fabricated in accordancewith the method 100 (FIG. 4 g ). Each layer was oriented at 90° to theunderlying layer, and the overall structure exhibits a relative filldensity of 25%. In this thick structure, bending is suppressed and thedeformation in the X-Y plane is isotropic. The pores undergo a 45%contraction in area, leading to an in-plane isotropic contraction and anexpansion in thickness on heating (FIG. 4 h ). The contraction in-planeis greater than the increase in thickness, causing the structure toexhibit a 36% volumetric contraction (FIG. 4 i ). It should be notedthat the intrinsic deformation of the LCE is isochoric and that thisobserved volumetric contraction is a structural effect enabled bydirect-write printing.

Local molecular orientation can also be programmed to produce 3D curvedextrusion printed objects. For example the method 100 was used to printhollow cylinders 10 mm in diameter and 4 mm tall. The cylinder wasprinted with an azimuthal print path (FIG. 5 a ). As predicted by Modeset al.^(p1-35), azimuthally-aligned LCE cylinders contract radially andexpand axially (FIG. 7 ). Varying the wall thickness of the cylinderallows the degree of azimuthal contraction to be tuned withthinner-walled cylinders producing larger degrees of contraction up to30% (FIG. 5 a ). Along with extrusion printing LCE objects with zeroGaussian curvature, LCEs with positive or negative Gaussian curvaturewere extrusion printed in accordance with the method 100. To ourknowledge, LCEs with this combination of alignment and geometry areimpossible to fabricate using previous methods. For example, a hollowLCE hemisphere programmed with a +1 defect pattern can be fabricatedlayer by layer (FIG. 5 b ). Following theoretical predictions ofspherical shells imposed with +1 defect patterning, the dome experiencesan azimuthal contraction and expansion in the axes orthogonal to thecontraction^(p1-35), morphing into a “peaked” hemisphere. The “peaked”portion of the dome is a resulting deformation of the object and aretention of the existing positive Gaussian curvature. This deformationresults in a doubling of height of the hemisphere. LCE structures withnegative Gaussian curvatures can be printed with the same topologicalpattern of molecular alignment (FIG. 5 c ). In response to thermalstimulus, the negative Gaussian curvature LCE also maintains itscurvature while undergoing azimuthal contraction and orthogonalexpansion.

Extrusion printing LCE objects containing regions of opposing Gaussiancurvatures with the same +1 topological alignment patterns can inducereversible and rapid deformations. We Extrusion printed objects thatexhibit a snap-through transition by printing a modified hemi-toroidalshell. This geometry contains a region of positive Gaussian curvaturethat is oriented oppositely to a region of negative Gaussian curvature(FIG. 6 a ). When placed on a heated surface, the structure approachesan elastic instability at the region of oppositely oriented regions ofGaussian curvature. When enough energy is stored to overcome theinstability, a snap-through actuation occurs releasing the energy andresulting in the reorientation of the positive Gaussian curvatureportion of the structure (FIG. 6 a ). This reorientation of curvaturesis reminiscent of ‘toy poppers’, but notably, occurs without requiringan externally applied mechanical deformation. Snap-through actuation canbe induced by fabrication of unique geometries^(p1-36-39). Acharacteristic of an extrusion-printed LCE object, is that the object iscapable of reversible shape change into its original geometry on cooling(FIG. 6 b & FIG. 8 ). This snapping event can be asymmetric. As the LCEobject undergoes the transition from partially inverted to fullyinverted over ˜16 ms, the entire structure is lifted airborne for ˜64 msbefore landing (FIG. 6 c ). This snap-through actuation is capable oflifting external loads and therefore performing useful work. At lowexternal loads, the LCE object can catapult the loaded mass (FIG. 9 ).Under moderate loads from 2 N/N to 20 N/N (when normalized to the weightof the actuator), the opposing Gaussian curved-containing objectexhibits a roughly constant stroke of 1 mm/mm (FIG. 6 d ). As such,specific work done by the structure in a range from about 0.1 to 0.7J/kg in a continuous manner as load increases (FIG. 6 d ). During thesnapping transition, a peak power of 15.5 W/kg is exhibited at anormalized load 5 times heavier than the actuator. Under loads greaterthan 40 times the mass of the actuator, the snap-through actuation is nolonger observed (FIG. 10 ). This snap-through actuation behavior arisesfrom the unique combination of complex shape change in Gaussian curvedstructures enabled by direct-write printing of LCEs.

Some embodiments of the opposing Gaussian curved-containing object arecapable of reversible snap-through actuation when exposed totemperatures above and below its T_(NI). As the extrusion printed objectis exposed to heating conditions (T=180° C. via a hot plate), the objectundergoes an inversion of the positive Gaussian curvature asymmetricsnapping on one end of the structure and then exhibits a second,stronger snap-through transition seconds later. Upon cooling, or turningthe hot plate off, the object snaps back into its original geometrydemonstrating capability of reversible snap-through actuations.

Some embodiments of the opposing Gaussian curved-containing object arecapable of producing enough work to throw a mass (˜500 mg) over acertain distance. Masses with very low loads can not only be lifted, butthrown off the structure as it goes through its snap-through transition.The source of heat was a heat lamp with approximate temperature of 170°C.

Materials: The liquid crystal monomer,1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene (RM82), waspurchased from Synthon Chemicals. The n-butylamine, which serves as achain extender, was purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Photoinitiator,Irgacure I-369, was donated from BASF Corporation.

Synthesis of Liquid Crystal Ink: The LC oligomer ink is prepared bymixing 1.1:1 molar ratio of RM82 and n-butylamine with 1.5 wt % ofphotoinitiator, I-369, in a glass vial. Heat and vortex are applied tothe monomeric precursors until a homogeneous, LC monomer solution iscreated. The LC solution is transferred into the print tube tooligomerize for 12 h at 75° C. for printing.

Ink Rheology: The rheological behavior of the LC oligomer ink wascharacterized using a Discovery HR-3 Hybrid Rheometer (TA Instruments,New Castle, Del.) with a 40 mm, 2.029° cone plate geometry. Allrheological experiments are tested at a gap of 900 μm at threetemperatures, 65° C., 85° C., and 115° C. Before each test, the LC inkwas allowed allow to thermally equilibrate for 5 minutes. Flow testswere conducted through logarithmic sweeps of shear rates from 0.1 to 100s⁻¹. Oscillation sweep tests were conducted at a fixed frequency of 1 Hzand a sweep stress from 0.1 to 100 Pa.

3D Printing: The oligomerized LC within the print tube was loaded intothe KCD-15 Extruder print head (Hyrel 3D, Norcross, Ga.), an attachmentof the System 30M 3D printer (Hyrel 3D, Norcross, Ga.). The print headis then heated to printing temperature 85° C. and equilibrated for 30min. G-code directs the print path of each layer to create the desiredstructure. The LCE structure is printed onto glass slides at printingspeeds of 1.5 m·s⁻¹ and initially cross-linked under 365 nm LEDs with a10% duty cycle of 3 W power during the fabrication process. The 3Dprinted LCE is then post-cured under 365 nm UV lamp with 250 mW/cm²intensity to cross-link remaining acrylate groups.

Mechanical Characterization: Static tensile testing of 3D printedrectangular samples was conducted at room temperature using a RSA-G2Dynamic Analyzer (TA Instruments, New Castle, Del.). Samples wereprinted in 15 mm×5 mm×1 mm. The sample was then loaded in a uniaxialdirection with a deformation rate of 1 mm/min until failure. Structureswith regions of opposing Gaussian curvature were compressed to 25%strain between two fixed platens at a deformation rate of 6 mm/min ateither 140 C or 165 C.

Actuation Characterization: Thermal actuation was characterized by imageanalysis (ImageJ) of the printed LCE structures from room temperature to160 or 200° C. Each structure was immersed in a silicone oil bath on ahot plate. The hot place was allowed to reach the desired temperature,equilibrate for 5 minutes, and then the sample was photographed forimage analysis. The snap-through actuation occurs in the presence ofthermal gradient by placing the structure of opposed Gaussian curvaturedirectly on a hot plate. Reported values represent an average of atleast three samples. It is to be noted that the LCE structures undergooxidation if left at high temperatures for long periods of time.

Microscopy: Polarized optical micrographs were taken with an OlympusBX51 microscope with Olympus UC color camera attachment. Scanningelectron micrographs were acquired using Zeiss SUPRA 40 SEM on goldsputtered samples.

Image/Video analysis: Macroscopic images and videos were taken at 60 fpsNikon DSLR camera or at 240 fps using Apple iPhone 6. Dimensionalchanges of the printed LCE structures were measured in ImageJ.

Specific Work/Stroke Characterization: Specific work and stroke of theopposing Gaussian curvature were determined through image analysis ofthe pre-snap and post-snap actuation geometries imposed by heating past150° C. Specific work was determined by multiplying the displacement ofthe center of mass of the external load by the weight of the externalload. Stroke is calculated by measuring the displacement of the top ofthe LCE structure. Reported values represent an average of threesamples.

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Experimental Results 2

We employ the use of a two-stage, one-pot thiol-acrylate/thiol-ene“click” reaction to formulate materials with controllablethermomechanical proprieties and processability. Through controlling thephase transition temperature of polymerizable LC inks and thecrosslinking strategy, morphing 3D structures with tunable actuationtemperature are fabricated, ranging from 12±2° C. to 54±1° C. Finally,we 3D print multiple LC inks in one structure to allow for theproduction of 3D objects that sequentially and reversible undergomultiple shape changes on heating.

We use a two-step thiol-ene reaction scheme. We first formulatemain-chain, nematic inks via the self-limiting thiol-acrylate Michaeladdition between a nematic diacrylate and an isotropic dithiol. Bycontrolling the ratio of thiol to acrylate, thiol-terminated oligomerswith tunable transition temperatures can be synthesized (FIG. 11 a ).Through DIW, these thiol-terminated nematic inks can be printed usingDIW, and the printing process locally programs the molecular order alongthe direction of the print path (FIG. 11 b ). While printing, the ink isphotocrosslinked by radical reaction of the thiol-terminated oligomerswith a trifunctional vinyl crosslinker (e.g., TATATO). This syntheticapproach is inspired by several prior approaches that utilize thiol-enereactions to synthesize LCEs.^([p2-35][p2-38][p2-39][p2-40])Nonetheless, this approach is distinct in that it is designedspecifically to be compatible with 3D printing and in that the thiol-enereaction is used for both chain extension and crosslinking which allowsfor the generation of LC inks with highly tunable physicalproperties.^([p2-41]) Taking advantage of DIW printing processes,different designs with multiple LC compositions can be fabricated, forexample 3 LC inks with varying nematic to isotropic transitiontemperatures can be used to fabricate structures which may enable large,reversible, and sequential actuation or structures with intrinsicsensing capabilities (FIG. 11 c ).

The nature of the crosslinking reaction used strongly affects the shapechanging behavior of the LCE. To demonstrate the effects of thiol-enephotocrosslinking compared to acrylate photocrosslinking (ExperimentalResults 1), we formulated two LCE systems with nearly identicalchemistry and crosslink densities. One ink is composed of equimolarmixture of thiol-terminated oligomer and trifunctional vinyl crosslinker(1:1 molar ratio) and the other ink is composed of solely anacrylate-terminated oligomer, similar to what was previously reportedfor printable LCEs. It is important to note that we used the samemesogen (RM82) and thiol spacer (EDDT) to synthesize both oligomers.Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is initially used to determineLC phase transitions temperatures for both inks (FIG. 12 a ). Thethiol-ene ink displays significantly lower nematic-to-isotropictransition (T_(NI)), (43±3° C.) compared to acrylate ink (72±4° C.) dueto the lower overall weight fraction of mesogen within the thiol-ene ink(72.5%) as compared to the acrylate ink (80%). Below thenematic-isotropic transition temperature, a second mesophase transitionis observed for both LC inks. This transition was identified as amesophase transition as the enthalpy (0.4 J/g) and hysteresis (3° C.) ofthe transition are smaller than what would be expected for a transitioncrystallization. Similar behavior has been observed in other thiol-eneLCEs, where this transition is identified as the smectic-to-nematictransition temperature.^([p2-42]) The second transition temperatureoccurs at (3±2° C.) for thiol-ene ink and (32±2° C.) for acrylate ink.Both LC transition temperatures dictate the thermomechanical andactuation behavior of the elastomers that result from the crosslinkingof the inks. We note that the rubbery modulus (E_(r)) and the glasstransition temperature (T_(g)) are shown to be equal (FIG. 12 b ) andthat both networks demonstrate high gel fraction with slightly highergel fraction value of acrylate-based crosslinked LCE (92±2%) compared tothiol-ene-based LCE (85±4%). Both materials exhibit glass transitiontemperatures below 0° C. and have a second drop in modulus that isassociated with the lower temperature LC transition (FIG. 12 b ).However, the mesophase transition temperatures are quite different forthe two materials, which controls the shape changing behavior of eachmaterial. The shape change of the two LCE networks as a function oftemperature is shown in FIG. 12 c . After passing nematic-to-isotropictransition temperature (T_(NI)) on cooling, both samples elongate alongthe loading axis. By comparison, thiol-ene crosslinked LCEs exhibitstwo-fold higher actuation strain and a sharper transition compared toacrylate crosslinked LCEs. It is expected that these differences can beattributed to the highly constrained and heterogeneous nature ofacrylate-crosslinked networks. On cooling below the second transitiontemperature, the length plateaus for both LCEs as the modulus isabruptly increased due to the increase in the polymer chain ordering andreduction in chain mobility. This higher order transition serves toprovide a sharp onset for actuation (on heating), perhaps providing away to further narrow the shape change exhibited by LCEs. This behavioris completely reversible on heating.

Control of LCE properties such as transition temperatures and actuationstrain can be achieved by varying the thiol chain extender, crosslinker,and/or mesogen concentration.^([p2-40][p2-43][p2-44]) We first variedthe crosslinker concentration within the inks (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 molarratio) while maintaining EDDT as the chain extender and RM82 as themesogen. T_(NI) of the inks decreases from 53±2 to 0±1° C. to withincreased crosslinker concentration (FIG. 17 a ). The reduction ofT_(NI) is attributed to the increase in the isotropic monomers in theinks. Upon crosslinking, T_(NI) of these LCEs increased by ˜30° C.(Table 1). As expected, the conventional physical properties ofelastomers increased with increasing crosslinker concentration. Forexample, the gel fraction and rubbery modulus (E_(r)) are increased from68±2 to 94±3% and 0.7±0.20 to 2.3±0.35 Mpa, respectively (FIG. 17 b,c ).While there is no substantial change in T_(g), the actuation strainincreases from 60±3 to 130±4% with decreasing the amount of thecrosslinker from 0.6 to 0.2 molar ratio. (FIG. 17 d ). A 1.2:1thiol:acrylate molar ratio is selected for this investigation due to theformation of robust LCE networks with high actuation strains (FIG. 17 ).

The oligomer is synthesized via the self-limiting thiol-acrylate Michaeladdition between a nematic diacrylate and an isotropic dithiol withmolar ratio of 0.8:1.0 (acrylate: thiol, respectively). End-groupanalysis by ¹³C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used todetermine the molecular weight of the thiol-terminated oligomers.Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (¹³C) spectra were recorded inCDCl3 on a Bruker AVANCE III™ 500 spectrometer (Bruker, Billerica,Mass.) (500 MHz) at ambient temperature. The spectrum for each oligomersample were taken using 0.40 mL of deuterated chloroform. The number ofrepeating units of the oligomer was determined from its ¹³C NMR bycomparing the relative carbon peak intensity of the end group containingthe thiol (—SH) group to the repeating unit of the thiol spacer (m) andthe RM 82 (n). For example, to calculate the repeat units of theoligomer RM82-PDT, the peak areas of the end group —CH₂SH (c at 23.7ppm), —CH₂S spacer (a at 31.2 ppm) and terminal —CH₂COO of RM (b at 35.2ppm) were obtained from the spectrum (FIG. 18 ). The repeat units wereobtained through the following formula:

${m\mspace{14mu}{or}\mspace{14mu} n} = \frac{a_{x}/n_{x}}{a_{end}/n_{end}}$where a_(x) is the area or intensity of the ¹³C NMR peak of thiol spaceror acrylate; n_(x) is the number of repeating units of thiol spacer oracrylate; a_(end) is the peak area of the —CH₂SH end-group; and n_(end)is the number of repeating units of —CH₂SH end-group.

The molecular weights of the example thiol-terminated oligomers aresummarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Summary of the molecular weight of the thiol-terminatedoligomers Molecular Oligomer Weight (g/mol) PDT-based 5956 EDDT-based4026 GDMP-based 4336

Varying the spacing between the mesogens can be used to tune thetransition temperature of the LCE.^([p2-42]) The phase behavior of threerepresentative inks is shown in FIG. 13 a . By increasing the molecularweight of thiol spacer, T_(NI) decreases from 81±8 to 41±2° C. Thereduction of T_(NI) is attributed to the declining mesogen concentrationin the LC ink. It is important to note, the LC ink compositions arefully miscible and no phase separation is observed. Each of these inkscan be printed using DIW, where the material extrusion simultaneouslydeposits and aligns the LC ink. The form and alignment is then trappedby photocrosslinking of the thiol-ene ink using UV LEDs on the printhead. To ensure molecular alignment results from the extrusion process,each ink is processed via DIW in the nematic phase (˜T_(NI)−20° C.). Theink compositions are designed to have low Tg (−45° C.), T_(NI) aboveroom temperature, and no crystallization behavior to ensureprintability. EDDT and GDMP-based inks have a relatively low T_(NI)(41±2° C.); therefore, room temperature is chosen for printing. ThePDT-based ink is processed at 60° C. because it has higher T_(NI) (81±6°C.). The rheological behaviors of the inks are tested at their printingtemperature (FIG. 13 b ). The three inks behave as viscous liquidscapable of being extruded during the printing process and exhibit shearthinning between ˜5 to 60 s⁻¹. The viscosity of PDT-based ink is oneorder of magnitude lower than the viscosities of EDDT and GDMP-basedinks, due to testing at an elevated temperature (60° C.). However, allof the LC inks show shear thinning properties associated with alignmentof the mesogens in the nematic phase.^([p2-45]) After printing, thefilaments are crosslinked via UV to permanently lock the alignment andform into elastomeric networks. When printed into a rectangular bar,with uniaxial alignment, each of the materials undergoes reversibleactuation strain along the primary print direction under no bias stress.The magnitude of the actuation varies slightly depending on the thiolchain extender used, ranging from 1.55 mm/mm to 1.78 mm/mm for GDMP andPDT-based LCE, respectively. Here we quantify actuation by the length ofthe LCE at room temperature normalized to the length of the LCE aboveall observed thermal transitions. However, the temperature at which thisshape change occurs is distinct for each material (FIG. 13 d ). Theactuation temperature can be defined as the temperature that correspondsto the onset of the actuation strain on cooling and ranges from ˜ 35±1°C. (EDDT-based LCE) to 54±2° C. (PDT-based LCE). It should be noted, themagnitude of the actuation strain for PDT-based LCE is twofold greaterthan previously reported 3D LCE actuators in the absence of externalload.^([p2-32])

The actuation of the printable LCE can be further tuned by selecting themesogenic monomer that is used to formulate the ink. Herein, weformulate four reactive LC inks by varying the weight ratio of twomesogens (RM82 and RM257) while keeping the same spacer (GDMP). T_(NI)of the ink compositions decreases (41±2, 29±1, 17±2, 12±3° C.) withdecreasing the weight ratio of RM82 to Rm257 (100-0, 75-25, 50-50, 25-75wt %). In case of replacing all of RM82 in the system with Rm257, theink (0-100) becomes an isotropic liquid (FIG. 14 a ). RM257 has a lowermolecular weight compared to RM82, and as a result inks with RM257 havea larger weight fraction of isotropic monomers. These compositionsexhibit largely Newtonian behavior over low to moderate shear rates, butexhibit shear thinning when approaching higher shear rates normallyassociated with DIW printing.^([p2-47]) Overall, an increasing trend inviscosity is exhibited as more RM257 is incorporated into the sample. Inother words, at room temperature, isotropic ink compositions exhibitsignificantly higher viscosity compared to nematic ink compositions(FIG. 19 ). It is critical that the extrusion of the LC inks must occurin the nematic phase to enable alignment of the ink during printing.Printing isotropic ink at room temperature results in polydomain LCEswith no controlled molecular alignment. Therefore, we only utilize inksthat exhibit nematic phases above room temperature. For example, GDMP(100-0) and GDMP (75-25) show a clear nematic behavior at roomtemperature, while GDMP (50-50), GDMP (25-75), and GDMP (0-100) exhibitisotropic phase at room temperature. We also note that the shear forcesapplied into GDMP (50-50) transiently increases its T_(NI) (FIG. 20 )during printing. FIG. 20 shows an isotropic ink of this compositionbecomes nematic upon applying a shear force at room temperature.Therefore, the shear forces imposed into this ink during the printingprocess can be used to both increase T_(NI) to above room temperatureand print structures with molecular alignment. Shear-induced phasetransformations have been widely reported previously.^([p2-48]) GDMP(25-75) and GDMP (0-100) do not exhibit nematic phase at roomtemperature even if shear force is applied. Therefore, thesecompositions will not be used for further investigation. The DMAbehavior of the selected nematic LCE networks GDMP (100-0), GDMP(75-25), and GDMP (50-50) is shown in (FIG. 14 b ). In general, the DMAbehavior of these LCEs exhibits a behavior similar to the one shown inFIG. 13 b . At higher temperatures (above 100° C.) all the networksexhibit the same value of the E′ (˜ 0.9 MPa) due to the similar amountof crosslinking in the network. The actuation performance of 3D printedfilms with a uniaxial alignment of these networks is shown in FIG. 14 c. The actuation temperature is shown to be dictated by the amount of theRM257 in the networks. For GDMP (75-25), and GDMP (50-50), showinteresting actuation behavior, where the actuation occurs over a lowand narrow temperature range (20 to 45° C.). The vast majority ofmolecularly aligned LCEs exhibit actuation temperature above 60° C. andactuation occurs over a much broader temperature range.^([p2-10]) To ourknowledge, this is the lowest reported actuation temperature for LCEswith alignment programmed prior to crosslinking. To demonstrate thehighly responsive nature of these materials, a disk with a +1 defectpattern is printed from the GDMP (75-25) material. This disk actuatesinto a cone on heating to 45° C., which is readily attainable from warmtap water (FIG. 14 d ). Importantly, these temperatures are below thepain threshold and may even be tolerable inside the human body for shortperiods of time.^([p2-49]) We note for GDMP (50-50), the actuationstrain is highly sensitive to the photo-curing after the extrusionprocess. Inefficient or slow curing will likely cause a loss ofalignment. The intensity of the UV curing and posturing process arestudied in the supporting information (FIG. 20 ). 3D printable LCEs thatrespond to the ambient temperature or near body temperature may open thedoor for a broad range of applications especially in the biomedicalfields, smart windows, and smart clothing.

Taking advantage of DIW printing's ability to incorporate differenttypes of materials in a 3D printed part, fabrication of LCE structuresthat exhibit sequential actuation upon uniform heating can be achieved.For example, a 20 mm, 1-layer LCE disk is printed with an overall +1topological defect pattern, but with two different LC inks (FIG. 15 a ).The outer rim is printed with a low-temperature responsive LCEcomposition (GDMP 75-25), and the inner portion of the disk is printedwith a high-temperature responsive LCE composition (PDT). As the disk isheated to 100° C., there is sequential actuation within the structure.At 45° C., the GDMP-LCE component forms a portion of a cone while thePDT component does not initiate actuation at this temperature (FIG. 15 b). Not until over 70° C. does the PDT component respond to heat and theoverall geometric cone, associated with +1 topological defect patterns,emerges (FIG. 15 b ). FIG. 15 c exhibits quantified changes in theheight profile of the disk. Upon cooling, the structure undergoesactuation in the reversed order: cone to plateaued-cone to diskgeometry. Another demonstration of using multi-material printingcapabilities is the printing of a 10×10 ×3 mm porous logpile structure.Each axis within the large plane of the structure is printed with adifferent LCE material. From the print schematic in FIG. 15 d , theorange paths are printed with a PDT-based composition and the greenpaths correspond to prints from the GDMP 75-25-based composition. As thesquare is heated, the x-axis (GDMP 75-25) shrinks at low temperatureswith the y-axis (PDT) staying relatively constant forming a rectangle,causing the pores to shrink anisotropically. When the temperature of thesilicone oil bath exceeds the actuation temperature of the PDTcomponent, the y-axis contracts creating an overall in-plane contraction(FIG. 15 e ). Instead of the geometry reaching a smaller squaregeometry, a final rectangular shape occurs due to the difference inmaximum actuation strain of each material respectively. The PDTcomponent exhibits a greater actuation strain compared to the GDMP 75-25component (FIG. 15 f ). These sequential changes in shape are criticalfor creating smart structures that respond in controllable ways toenvironmental conditions.

The controllable response of multi-material smart structures can also beused to embed a form of physical intelligence within an actuator.Specifically, we demonstrate how incorporating various LCE inks withinone structure can be used to generate a demonstrative “sensing” gripper.The gripper is composed of a low-temperature responsive LCE (GDMP 75-25)and a high-temperature responsive LCE (PDT) (FIG. 16 a ). The gripper isfour layers thick with GDMP-LCE on the bottom surface of the gripper (L₁and L₂) and PDT-LCE on the top surface (L₃ and L₄) (FIG. 16 b ). The“sensing” aspect of the gripper stems from the combination of differentLCE actuators influencing various motions within the structure. The twocomponents of the gripper are designed to preferentially bend toward itsrespective side by printing “twisted nematic” configurations. Whenintroduced to an environment above the GDMP 75-25's actuationtemperature (70° C.), the gripper begins to actuate bending towards theobject and leads to eventual grasping of the object (FIG. 16 c ). Thisphenomenon will only occur if the temperature is lower or on the low-endof PDT's actuation response allowing for the gripper to bend in thedirection the GDMP 75/25 is printed on. At higher elevated temperatures(>PDT's actuation temperature), PDT's bending actuation toward itsrespective side overcomes the GDMP 75/25's actuation causing the samegripper's fingers to curl away in the opposite direction. Thisinteraction inhibits the gripper to grasp the object at increasedtemperatures (140° C.) (FIG. 16 d ). By controlling the actuationsequence within a multi-material printed LCE structure, sensingmechanisms without the need for external wiring or computing source canbe realized. Sensing accomplished by the material's inherent propertiesoffers major implications and advances within the field of softrobotics.^([p2-22])

Table 2 shows the examples of the influence of mesogen concentration,crosslinking method, crosslinker concentration, spacer molecular weight,and mesogen molecular weight on liquid crystal transition temperatures(smectic-to-nematic (TSN) and nematic-to-isotropic (TNI)) for the inksand the LCE networks: the mesogen content (wt %) is measured withrespect to the total weight of all monomers compositions. The LC phasetransition temperatures (TSN and TNI) for the inks are measured (DSC) atthe second heating scan and defined as the minimum value of the firstand the second endothermic peak, respectively. The actuationtemperatures for LCE networks are characterized by the onset, midpoint,and off set (on heating) of the transition temperature of the actuationstrain. The actuation strain is measured (DMA) as a function oftemperature.

TABLE 2 Reaction type LCE T_(NI) (EDDT-based Mesogen Oligomer OligomerLCE T_(NI) midpoint LCE T_(NI) LCE) (wt. %) T_(SN) (° C.) T_(NI) (° C.)onset (° C.) (° C.) offset (° C.) Acrylate 82 32 ± 3 82 ± 4   75 ± 2  95± 5 120 ± 10 thiol-ene 73  3 ± 2 42 ± 3   35 ± 1  65 ± 2 102 ± 1 Crosslinker molar ratio LCE T_(NI) (EDDT-based Mesogen Oligomer OligomerLCE T_(NI) midpoint LCE T_(NI) LCE) (wt. %) T_(SN) (° C.) T_(NI) (° C.)onset (° C.) (° C.) offset (° C.) 0.1 75.4 15 ± 4 53 ± 2   N/A N/A N/A0.2 73  3 ± 2 42 ± 3   35 ± 1  65 ± 2 102 ± 1  0.4 67.5 N/A 18 ± 1   13± 2  53 ± 2 83 ± 1 0.6 63 N/A  0 ± 0.5  5 ± 1  38 ± 2 65 ± 4 LCE T_(NI)Network (RM82- Mesogen Oligomer Oligomer LCE T_(NI) midpoint LCE T_(NI)based LCE) (wt. %) T_(SN) (° C.) T_(NI) (° C.) onset (° C.) (° C.)offset (° C.) PDT 80  9 ± 1 80 ± 5   54 ± 1 105 ± 1 144 ± 2  EDDT 73  3± 2 42 ± 3   35 ± 1  65 ± 2 102 ± 1  GDMP 68.5 10 ± 1 41 ± 2   51 ± 1 65 ± 1 86 ± 1 GDMP-based LCE Network LCE T_(NI) with Mesogen OligomerOligomer LCE T_(NI) midpoint LCE T_(NI) RM82/RM257 (wt. %) T_(SN) (° C.)T_(NI) (° C.) onset (° C.) (° C.) offset (° C.) 100 68.5 10 ± 1 41 ± 2  51 ± 1  65 ± 1 86 ± 1 75/25 67.5 N/A 29 ± 1   26 ± 1  47 ± 2 66 ± 250/50 66.7 N/A 17 ± 1   12 ± 2  28 ± 2 44 ± 6

Materials.

Liquid crystal monomers, 1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2methylbenzene (RM82) and4-Bis-[4-(3-acryloyloxypropyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene (RM257)were purchased from Wilshire Technologies, Inc. Thiol chain extenders,1,3-propanedithiol (PDT) and 2,2′-(ethylenedioxy) diethanethiol (EDDT),were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and Glycol Di(3-mercaptopropionate)(GDMP) was donated by Bruno Bock Thiochemicals. Triethylamine (TEA) waspurchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used as base-catalyst. Thephotoinitiator, Irgacure I-369, was donated by BASF Corporation. Vinylcrosslinker, 1,3,5-Triallyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)-trione, waspurchased from Sigma-Aldrich. The radical inhibitor butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

Reactive Liquid Crystal Ink Preparation.

The LCEs are synthesized via a two-step method. First liquid crystalinks are synthesized via a thiol-acrylate Michael addition.Non-equimolar mixtures of LC monomers (diacrylate) and dithiols areheated to 80° C. and then mixed with a base-catalyst (1 wt % of TEA), 2wt % of BHT, 1.5 wt % of photoinitiator and the vinyl crosslinker. Thisprocess results in thiol-terminated oligomers. The ratio of thiol,acrylate, and vinyl functional groups is kept constant in all samples.The molar ratio used is 0.8 acrylate:1 thiol:0.2 vinyl, unless otherwisenoted. After mixing, the solution is transferred into the printingsyringe to complete oligomerization for 3 h at 65° C., forming theliquid crystal ink.

Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing.

The liquid crystal ink within the printing syringe is then loaded into aKR-2 Extruder print head (Hyrel3D, Norcross, Ga.), which is anattachment of the system 30M 3D printer (Hyrel 3D, Norcross, Ga.). EDDTand GDMP inks are printed at room temperature whereas PDT ink isprocessed 60° C. These oligomers are crosslinked under 365 nm LEDs withan intensity of 0.8 mW cm², following extrusion from the printer.Samples are then postcured under 365 nm UV light for 15 minutes.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC).

DSC is performed using a TA Instruments Q2500 machine (New Castle, Del.,USA). LC ink samples with a mass of approximately 10 mg are loaded intoa standard aluminum DSC pan. Samples are equilibrated at −80° C. andheated to 120° C. to erase any thermal history, cooled to −80° C., thenheated to 150° C., all at the same rate of 10° C. min⁻¹. Thenematic-to-isotropic phase transition (T_(NI)) was measured using theminimum value of the endothermic well of the second heating cycle.

Liquid Crystal Ink Rheology.

A Discovery HR-3 Hybrid Rheometer (TA Instruments, New Castle, Del.) wasused to characterize the rheological behavior of the LC inks. All flowexperiments were conducted with 25 mm parallel plate geometries andtested with logarithmic shear rate sweeps from 0.1 to 100 s⁻¹. Allrheological experiments are tested at a gap of 600 μm at theirrespective printing temperatures and after 3 hours of oligomerization tosimulate ink printing conditions.

Gel Fraction Measurement.

LCEs were extracted in chloroform for 1 week to determine the gelfraction (GF) of the networks. LCE films were cut into rectangularsamples measuring approximately 20 mm×5 mmx 1 mm. Each sample was thenplaced in a vial of 25 mL of chloroform for the experiments. After 1week, samples were removed from the swelling medium, dried for 24 h inan oven at 80° C. The GF was calculated by

${GF} = {\frac{Wf}{Wi} \times 100}$where Wi is the initial dry weight of the sample and Wf is the final dryweight of the sample. Three samples (n=3) were tested for eachcomposition.

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA).

DMA is performed using a TA Instruments RSA-G2 machine (New Castle,Del., USA). Polydomain LCE samples are created for DMA testing byphotocrosslinking LC inks between two glass slides with 1 mm spacerusing 365 nm UV light for 10 minutes. Rectangular samples measuringapproximately 20×3×0.8 mm³ are tested in tensile mode, with the activelength measuring approximately 10 to 12 mm. Samples were cycled at 0.2%strain at 1 Hz and heated from −50 to 150° C. at a rate of 3° C. min⁻¹.All of samples are annealed at 80° C. and allowed to cool at roomtemperature for 24 h prior to testing. The glass transition temperature(T_(g)) is measured at a temperature corresponding the peak of tan δcurve.

Actuation Performance Measurement.

The actuation performance for the printed film is characterized usingDMA machine described previously. Rectangular samples measuringapproximately 15 mmx 5 mmx 0.25 mm are tested in tensile mode. Then theactuation strain is measured with or without bias stress. A constantstress is applied to an LCE film; each sample is heated and cooled atleast five time from 150 to 0° C., all at the same rate of 5° C. min−1.The magnitude of the strain and the hysteresis are measured in thesecond heating cycle. Thermal actuation response of the other 3D printedstructures (disk, porous square, etc.) is characterized by imageanalysis (ImageJ) of the printed LCE structures from room temperature toa desired temperature above T_(NI) (110° C.). Each structure wasimmersed in a silicone oil bath heated by a hot plate. The oil bath isallowed to reach a desired temperature and equilibrate for 3 min beforethe sample is photographed for image analysis. A GDMP-LCE composition,low temperature, is also shown actuating with hot water generated fromthe faucet (45° C.). The sample is placed in hot water for 2 min beforephotographed for image analysis. Actuation performance of the gripper isimaged with two silicone oil baths at 70° C. and 140° C., respectively.A copper wire was punctured through the middle of the “sensing” gripperto allow for ease of manipulation into and out of the baths. The gripperwas then lowered to each respective bath toward a hollow, foil ring. Thegripper was imaged as the gripper interacts with foil ring, eithergrasping or pulling away from the foil ring.

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Those skilled in the art to which this application relates willappreciate that other and further additions, deletions, substitutionsand modifications may be made to the described embodiments.

What is claimed is:
 1. A liquid crystal ink for ink-extrusion printing,comprising: a mixture including liquid crystal diacrylate monomers and achain extending monomer selected from the group consisting of a primaryamine chain extending monomer, 2,2′-(ethylenedioxy)diethanethiol, glycoldi(3-mercaptopropionate), 1,3-propanedithiol, nonanedithiol,ethanedithiol, hexanedithiol, and combinations thereof, wherein at leastsome of the liquid crystal diacrylate monomers are part of liquidcrystal oligomers of the ink, wherein the chain extending monomer isincorporated between some or all of the liquid crystal diacrylatemonomers and terminates the liquid crystal oligomers, and wherein themixture when at a target printing temperature is in a nematic phase. 2.The ink of claim 1, wherein the ink has a nematic to isotropictransition temperature (TNI) in a range from about 0 to 150° C.
 3. Theink of claim 1, wherein the liquid crystal oligomers having an averagemolecular weight in a range from about 2 kD to 25 kD.
 4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the liquid crystal monomers include one or moresubstituted or unsubstituted 1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy]benzene liquid crystal monomers having the formula:

wherein n₁ and n₂ are integers in a range from 3 to 6, and X is —H, —CH₃or —F.
 5. The ink of claim 4, wherein the liquid crystal monomersinclude a first substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystal monomerwherein n₁=n₂ and X is —H, —CH₃, or —F.
 6. The ink of claim 5, whereinthe liquid crystal monomers further include a second substituted orunsubstituted 1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquidcrystal monomer wherein X is —H, —CH₃, or —F and n₁=n₂ but the n₁ and n₂of the second substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystal monomerare not equal to the n₁ and n₂ of the first substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystalmonomer.
 7. The ink of claim 6, wherein: for the first substituted orunsubstituted 1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquidcrystal monomer, n₁=n₂=6 and X=—CH₃ to provide1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene; for thesecond substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystalmonomer, n₁=n₂=3 and X =—CH₃ to provide1,4-Bis-[4-(3-acryloyloxypropyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene; and amolar ratio of the first substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystalmonomer:second substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystal monomeris in a range from about 25:75 to 75:25.
 8. The ink of claim 1, whereinthe primary amine chain extending monomer comprises a covalently linkedseries of three to ten carbon atoms and a primary amine end functionalgroup.
 9. The ink of claim 1, wherein the primary amine chain extenderis n-butylamine.
 10. The ink of claim 5, wherein X is —CH₃.
 11. The inkof claim 6, wherein X is —CH₃.
 12. The ink of claim 7, wherein the molarratio of the first substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystalmonomer:second substituted or unsubstituted1,4-bis-[(acryloyloxyalkyloxy)benzoyloxy] benzene liquid crystal monomeris 50:50.